chapter iv

The Korean history before the arrival of Christianity may be religiously divided into three periods: Hananim-Shamanism-Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. They were national religions of successive dynasties, each for a long period, and therefore these religions have permeated into every area of life. So they have survived among the people even after the former religions were officially banned. As a result, Korean religious life became cumulative and syncretic. Christianity entered Korean religious life in this riskful atmosphere of powerful syncretism. As a matter of fact, Korea has always been a powerful melting pot of the world religions, including Shamanism, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism and Christianity. Therefore, without great caution and unceasing reflection, any religion is easily mixed up with the syncretised religiosity of long tradition. [19]

In the early missionary encounter with the Korean traditional religious culture, some traditional ideas and practices were tolerated, modified or justified because the Bible and Christian doctrines could not be communicated without the use of existing concepts or practices, most of which were taken from traditional religions. Further, the first Christians of the Korean church naturally attempted to interpret the Christian Gospel in terms of Korean philosophical and religious ideas, and this understanding has formed the basic structure of the spirituality and theology of the Korean churches. Therefore, I will attempt to analyze the traditional religions in order to delineate their doctrines of sanctification, with the assumption that every religion has a kind of doctrine of sanctification which includes the ideal state of man and how to achieve it. However, we will limit our study to the major traditional religions of Korea, which have dominated Korean religious life for a long period of time and deeply penetrated into the collective religiosity of the Korean people as a whole, either as a national religion or popular religion, for such religions are powerful enough to influence the general consciousness of the Korean mind and thus Korean Christianity also. So we will discuss five such religions: Hananim-worship, Shamanism, Taoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. [20]

4.2.1 Hananim-Worship

As the Korean people originally emigrated from the central Asia to the Korean peninsula via the northern route (Siberia, Mongolia and Manchuria), [21] they brought with them the religions of that region--Shamanism and the worship of the Supreme Deity of Heaven. [22] These two religions, polytheistic and monotheistic, have coexisted side by side throughout four thousand years of history. Heaven-worship especially has been kept most pure and strong among Koreans of all the northern Asian peoples. [23] Also, as they had a close relationship with the Chinese, their religious life was complicated by the import of some primitive folklore from China. Therefore, the oldest religions of Korea consist of three religious practices:

Heaven-worship, Shamanism, and imported folklore. [24] However, Heaven-worship has been so purely kept from the syncretising power of Shamanism, for both are too distinct to be mixed up. [25] Furthermore, Korean Heaven-worship is neither simply a philosophy of monotheism nor a nature worship of the astronomical heaven. To the contrary, the “Heaven” is the highest being who created and governs the world, and thus has been personalized as “Hananim” and affectionately worshipped by the whole Korean people, with the general view that all other religions are “inferior” or “secondary” to this supreme religion of Hananim. [26]

Dangun, the legendary founder of Korea, is said to be an offspring of the Heavenly God and ordained to rule people as well as lower spirits. He therefore built several altars and worshipped only the Heavenly God. When the first missionaries encountered this, they were so astonished and impressed that they immediately identified this deity with the Heavenly God of Christianity. In 1906 H.B.Hulbert wrote:

Its immense age is beyond question...The foundation stones and the first few courses give evidence of extreme age...The upper courses are apparently of more recent structure, and yet old compared with our most venerable European structures...Standing upon this altar-crowned summit, as the ocean wind drives the clouds across the serrated tops of the rugged range, one tries to imagine himself back in the days of Abraham, when Tangun stood by and directed the building of this heaven-touching altar...The mind faints in the effort to grasp the meaning of four thousand years. Not even China herself, that synonym of cyclopean age, can show as ancient and authentic a memento of the past. [27]

Strange to say, the purest religious notion which the Korean to-day possesses is the belief in Hananim, a being entirely unconnected with either of the imported cults and as far removed from the crude nature-worship. This word Hananim is compounded of the words “Heaven” and “master”... The Koreans all consider this being the Supreme Ruler of the Universe... Considered from this standpoint, the Koreans are strictly monotheists and the attributes and

powers ascribed to this being are in such consonance with those of Jehovah that the foreign missionaries have almost universally accepted the term for use in teaching Christianity. [28]

Also, H.G.Underwood wrote in 1910:

In Seoul, to the northwest, there is a beautiful grove of trees which contains an altar to the Heavens... Twice a year the emperor,... in reality acting as high priest for the whole country, offers up sacrifices to the Heavens. In addition to this, any notable and radical change in the laws, or any change in the name of dynasties, must be followed as soon as possible by the proper services at this altar, when the deity will be notified of the change, and here it might be said the emperor takes the oath of office... The altar, always comparatively low, built simply of earth and stone, is generally inside one or two-walled enclosures, with terraces gradually rising higher and completely open to the Heavens. As we view these enclosures, where the Supreme Deity is worshipped, we cannot but feel their entire fitness to the purpose to which they are sacred. Here are no stately piles of masonry, no groined arches and stained glass, no pictured walls or statuary, to intrude upon the worshipper's senses and steal his thoughts from the great object of his devotions... The blue vault of Heavens is the only canopy of this temple, the lofty whispering pines are its columns, the stars its tapers, the birds its choristers, and the flowery sod is its pavement. Here man,... in childlike faith and simplicity, seems instinctively sought the nearest way direct to his Father and Creator. [29]

Even since the arrival of foreigners... at times of great disaster, such as cholera, plague, drought, and famine, the emperor has by royal edict called upon the people to purify themselves, and go to the high hills and other places and sacrifice and pray to the Heavens... the people en masse prayed to the Heavens (not the physical arch above, which can be seen, but to the Heavens personified, to Providence) to avert the disaster, or send relief from the curse. Does not, then, this fact, that amid all her idolatry and superstition, Korea still has a kind of henotheism, give considerable weight to the theory that originally they were monotheists? [30]

Since the founding of Korea, the worship of Hananim has been a national religion through its whole history, [31] though foreign religions were introduced later. Following Dangun, every patriarch or king of Korea had the religious responsibility of worshipping the Heaven on behalf of his people, assisted by the high-priest called chon-gwan. [32] In spite of the strong influence of idolatrous Buddhism, the Heavenly God was kept from being made into an idol. [33] Moreover, even in the period of Confucianism which prohibits the worship of Heaven except the Chinese emperor, Korean kings have consistently ignored Confucian objections and worshipped the Heavenly Deity regularly. Also, only animals and especially sheep were used for the sacrifice to the Heaven. [34] Moreover, the polytheistic shaman who serves the lower spirits was not allowed to participate in the worship of the Heavenly God. [35] The missionaries therefore willingly identified the Hananim with the Heavenly God of Christianity and used the term to communicate the concept of God. [36] Of course, the Korean people welcomed this identification and it contributed greatly to the Christian mission in Korea. [37] Still, they do not depart from this tradition.

In this Hananim-worship, “Great care is exercised as to purification” rather than sacrifice or ritual. [38] “Absolute cleanness is considered essential.” [39] Purification includes not only “the ablutions numerous and carefully performed” but also purification of mental desires, as seen in the Dangun legend which encourages virtues like patience, obedience and love. [40] Because the Heavenly God was believed to be pure and holy, worship will be acceptable only done by the pure in body and mind. [41] This religious consciousness of purity has been so dominant from the ancient times that the Korean people became to like anything pure and white, even being called “white people” because of their favour to wear “white” clothes. So the original and basic idea of sanctification is that of purification. Of course, it reflects religious fear of as well as respect for the Supreme Deity and this oldest tradition of purification has strongly shaped all religious worship. [42] The Korean Christians also are accustomed to prepare themselves by purifying their body and soul in order to approach the altar of the holy God. However, it is a ceremonial purification which is done only when they approach the holy Deity, while they are relatively or absolutely free from purification in other times.

4.2.2 Shamanism

Shamanism deals with lower spirits, though it does acknowledge the supreme deity of Heaven. [43] It is animistic and magical: a spirit-possessed shaman helps troubled people by appeasing good spirits who are offended or by exorcising evil spirits who are troubling them, [44] believing that all troubles originate from spirits who are present in everything--heaven and earth, moon and stars, mountains and rivers, trees and animals, and the deceased humans. [45] Korean shamans are mainly of possession type rather than trance type of M. Eliade. [46] Among shamans there is “no hierarchy” but “a sort of Congregationalism”: one shaman serves 500-1000 households as her “inherited customers.” [47] Because it is believed that a happy life is achieved by not offending any spirit and that therefore any trouble is caused by spirits, people ascribed a great importance to this “spirit-matters” with which only shaman can deal through the magical ceremony of “gut.” [48]

In Shamanistic system of faith, therefore, if there is any sort of sanctification, it is liberation from evil spirits, i.e., exorcism and this can be achieved only by depending on a charismatic priest called “shaman, moodang.” But it does not know any new creation or imitatio. [49] Therefore Shamanistic idea of sanctification is rather ceremonial, magical and priestly. Since it is still present powerfully in the depth of the Korean religiosity, even Christians tend to depend for their sanctification on charismatic pastors and worship services. It also promoted the fear of demons, favour of exorcism and indifference to morality, all of which greatly affect Korean church life today. [50] Shamanism may be said to be the sub-structure of all religions in Korea rather than merely one of the religions and all the foreign religions have been planted on its soil and have been significantly modified by it in the process of indigenization. [51]

4.2.3 Taoism

Chinese Taoism was introduced as Chinese influence had steadily increased since the 4th century B.C. It entered Korea without much conflict with Shamanism, for both shared religious view for Nature as divine. Moreover, the imported form of Taoism was a Chinese folk religion of sorcery and especially divination to predict fate and make fortune according to the Book of Changes [I-Ching] and its Yin-Yang theory. [52] Unlike Chinese Taoism which is the “only” religion in China, [53] there has been no organized Taoism in Korea except a few instances. [54] Its founder Lao-tsze has not been worshipped and no Taoist temple has been built. This imported folklore was thus completely absorbed into Shamanism and became extremely popular in the superstitious forms of divination, [55] prayers by women to the seven stars of the Great Bear, [56] fortune papers [57] and geomancy for tomb and house. [58]

However, the most powerful influence of Taoism in Korea is the belief in long life and even semi-immortality by way of natural medicine and self-discipline. [59] The most popular and secular way is to take some mysterious natural medicines, for example, mountain ginseng, deer antler, or bear's gall-bladder, which are believed to carry the power of longevity in nature. [60] On the other hand, the more serious and authentic way is to pursue semi-immortality through self-discipline. As it is well known, Taoism pursues a harmonious life with Nature and its ideal is the ultimate union with Nature. Lao-tsze wrote Tao-te ching which means Canon of Morality, but it is ironic that Taoism has no morality in the usual sense. Its ideal is rather the natural man who lives by his own nature rather than some required rule of life extra se. [61] Later, Lao-tsze's teaching on Tao was greatly elaborated by Chang Tsu.

According to Taoist cosmology, [62] Tao, the universal causa sui, is distributed in the form of Virtue in the Nature and Virtue generates individual existence in Matter and Form, whether it is human, animal or thing. [63] Therefore, the essence of all forms of being, including human being as well as animal and plant, is homogeneously Virtue, which is empty, still and clear. [64] However, because Virtue is lost in the generation of Form and Matter, which are mutable and mortal, the restoration of Virtue which is the real self is the way to overcome mortality. This restoration of the original essence can be not achieved through meditation or study but only through the denial of the material self and the material world and liberation from material emotions, in short, return to the Nature. [65] Therefore, the ideal man in Taoist disciplines pursues the attainment of a perfect harmony with the Nature [66] by living in the mysterious rocky mountains and by pure streams as well as attempting to imitate and communicate with some mysterious beings like the “ten long lives” which semi-immortality proves their significant return to the Virtue. [67] Some have claimed that they developed mysterious techniques for communicating with the spiritual Nature and even manipulating the powers of Nature like wind, rain or light. Others developed the technique of Dan as a way to return to the Nature by absorbing enough “spirit [Chi]” of Nature through the disciplined breathing. [68] This naturally led to the development of oriental martial arts like Kung Fu, Taekwondo, Karate, or Judo, because Tao masters tried very hard to discipline their bodies so as to move like bird or tiger. [69] It has therefore been popular among military men. For example, General Yooshin Kim who led the first unification of Korea in 661 was a Tao master [70] and the Wharang community which had decisively contributed to this unification was greatly influenced by Taoism. [71] Because the main object of Taoist worship in China is a legendary warrior called Kwanwoo, Korean Taoists have also worshipped great warriors in the history. [72]

In contrast to Shamanism, Taoism has deeply planted the wish for and idea of religious sanctification in Korean religiosity. It must be a fantastic idea to be an immortal angel through self-discipline. No doubt, Taoistic idea of disciplinary sanctification has some concepts similar to those found in the Christian idea of sanctification: self-denial, hard and continuous discipline, mystical union, immortality, and deification. [73] However, it emphasizes self-discipline and lacks any idea of salvation or grace, [74] though it does teach obedience to the will of the Deity. [75] Moreover, such a mysterious achievement was far beyond the reach of ordinary people. Because it was believed that only a special man called “Tao master,” who leaves his secular life for long and hard discipline in the deep mountains, could attain such a state, an elitism for a few and surrender for many in the pursuit of sanctification have developed.

4.2.4 Buddhism

Buddhism was introduced during the period of the Three Kingdoms, A.D. 372 in Kokuryo, 384 in Baekje, and 535 in Silla, and it was accepted by the initiative of royal house for some political purposes. [76] However, it was strongly resisted by the pre-existent Shamanism until it became transformed to a religion suited to ordinary people. It was so, even though the Buddhism which had been introduced to Korea was already a significantly modified form of Chinese Buddhism and it was also almost a millennium after Buddhism had been originally developed in India. Buddhism had passed through several stages of transformation before it reached Korea. Even after it entered Korea, Buddhism was further syncretized to a large extent with Shamanism, Taoism, Confucianism and even the Hananim religion. [77]

Originally, under the influence of the Upanishad philosophers who insisted on the divinity of man with the belief that God [Brahman] and our self [atman] are the same, Siddhartha Gautama attempted to reform polytheistic Hinduism about the 6th century B.C. with the teaching that enlightenment [bodhi] is the way to the spiritual state of perfect liberation [nirvana] from worldly desires and self-deception. [78] Therefore, to be an enlightened one [buddha] was very much a philosophical and psychological matter. However, as his followers became divided into strict imitators of Gautama's self-discipline (Theravada school) and moderate imitators of Gautama's spirit (Mahayana school) a couple centuries later, it began to be mystified and materialized. [79] Gautama and his distinguished disciples were idolized and innumerable mystical stories were created. The process reached its climax in the development of Tantric Buddhism and mandala methods. [80] Of course, this phenomena may be regarded as the natural development of Gautama's self-contradictory tolerance of some Hinduistic beliefs like metempsychosis of six worlds. In any event, it was especially dominant in the Mahayana school, which main idea is the belief in boddhisattvas who are almost enlightened but prefer to stay in the world to help people, [81] and it was this form of Buddhism that was introduced to Korea through China, where it became even more religious through the creation of Kwanyin, the goddess of mercy, who listens every prayer. [82] Buddhism was no longer an atheistic humanism but a new religion which God is Buddha, though Gautama himself had strongly denied his deity. Buddha's central idea that one could achieve a happy life in being freed from excessive desires and deceptive fantasies and living a harmonious and meditative life has been transformed into a polytheistic religion of deities and demonic spirits.

However, the essence of Buddhism is atheistic humanism, self-salvation through enlightenment and the denial of any worldly reality. Accordingly, Christian dialogue with Buddhism is extremely difficult, unless it is not a very secularized form of Christianity. [83] While Gautama denied any deity or its significance, he gave the great importance to the problem of human sufferings and tried to solve it. Upon his understanding that all changes and changeable things are not real, he taught that human suffering as well as the human self are not real, though people are simply self-deceived and suffer. [84] Everything changes and nothing stays forever, but people do not know this truth and are deceived that the illusory world and its sufferings are real. Gautama became an enlightened one [Buddha], because he understood it by himself through meditation. Though man was in the spiritual bondage of “no understanding” due to a priori and a posteriori causes, his original understanding could be restored by self-discipline. [85] Because it is sensual desires, illusory temptations and worldly attachment that causes the lack of light which results in pain and struggle, [86] the denial of self and worldly realities is the only way to overcome human suffering and achieve true understanding. [87] Strictly speaking, it is a psychological self-hypnotism which seeks perfect peace of mind by denying the reality of every source of pain. To achieve this end, one must first deny all social relationships, including those of family and occupation which had enslaved his mind. So Gautama directed his followers to leave their family and community in order to practise spiritual discipline in a calm atmosphere. Because it is hardly possible to persuade oneself fully that all worldly realities are not real and to separate himself totally from human emotions toward one's family and one's senses, Gautama required a life-long discipline of meditation following his guidelines in order to achieve “sudden enlightenment” and perfect spiritual freedom.

Therefore, only a small number of monks followed him and were engaged fully in the life-long discipline for the Buddhahood. It included both physical and spiritual disciplines, and the negative view of human body demanded a serious effort into ascetic discipline. Further, the sanctified state of the mind was described as “no desire and no thought,” and this leads to an image of the sanctified man as very ascetic and even senseless. This way of sanctification is very similar with the disciplinary sanctification of Taoism, but we will call it meditative sanctification to distinguish it from the former. This form of Buddhistic discipline is called Zen Buddhism, because “zen” means meditation. Two schools of Buddhism have been developed in Korea--Meditation School and Canon School, though there were some attempts to reconcile both schools. [88] The latter emphasizes the reading and studying of the Buddhist canon as a means of sanctification rather than arbitrary meditation in which the only subject is “nothingness.” So this school has taught the notion of canonic sanctification. However, both schools commonly believed the disciplinary process of sanctification to be deification, that is, “to be a Buddha,” and also held to an elitism that only high-level monks who have left his family and engaged in the life-long discipline of meditation or canonic study could achieve it. Therefore, numerous masters insisted that they discovered different ways to achieve it and almost every big mountain in Korea taught their own way. Even the canon could not unify the sects and mountains, because the Buddhist canon is too diverse [89] and it was also practically powerless to the meditation school. Buddhism was very individualistic and futuristic: The world is essentially sinful and the worldly life is not compatible with life of sanctification in any way.

However, the most popular form of Buddhism in Korea developed later: Pure Land Buddhism, [90] which practically gives up the impossible attainment of Nirvana and instead teaches an “easy way for the ordinary people” with a positive view of this world. It requires simply praying as much as possible, and some cumulation of works of mercy. This easy way of attaining happiness both in the present and future life was enthusiastically welcomed by ordinary people and opened the way for Korean mass Buddhism. [91] The idea of the spiritual Nirvana was replaced by the spatial Pure Land of Extreme Joy, while the frightening hell was taught as its counterpart. [92] The way to be reborn into the Pure Land is quite easy: one simply has to chant a short formula prayer to Amitabha Buddha 10 times or more, because salvation comes by the grace of Amitabha. [93] No doubt, this teaching is incompatible with the authentic Buddhism where there is no deity, grace, or prayer. [94] Moreover, it is contradictory that salvation could be achieved through the grace of Amitabha, while Amitabha himself had to achieve it through hard self-discipline. [95] Pure Land Buddhism contains no serious idea of sanctification but only the individualistic wish to go to Paradise in the future life and to live a blessed life here in this world. Prayer is the only way to achieve it. This idea of sanctification by prayer has spoiled Korean people so that they would prefer cheap salvation in word than deed. It also encouraged to seek quantity than quality of prayer, for it promises Buddha's blessing on any request including secular desires in proportion to one's quantity of prayer and later offering. No doubt this is a secularization of Buddhism through reception of popular practice in Shamanism, and this superstitious corruption has given rise to an anti-Buddhistic spirit in Korean society. However, it is this form of Buddhism that has dominated Korean history for almost two millennia, and this was the religious situation where Christianity was introduced.

4.2.5 Confucianism

Confucianism became the official religion of Korea after Buddhism, even though it had been introduced earlier. A Confucian college was established already in A.D. 372 when Buddhism was first introduced to Korea. Further, already in 285 the Confucian scholar Wang-In of Baekje introduced Confucian literature to Japan. [96] In its early stage, it was simply a study of Chinese literature. Until 1392 when a new dynasty declared Confucianism to be its official religion, it had functioned primarily as an educational curriculum in Chinese philosophy both in royal and private institutions. [97] Therefore, all the government officials had been educated in Confucian teachings, and this educational system naturally developed antagonism to Buddhism which had been protected as a safeguarding system for the royal class in line with the Buddhist doctrine of metempsychosis. [98] Confucianism supported the idea that anybody could be a ruler if he succeeded in the discipline of his mind and expand his ability enough to rule.

According to the Confucian cosmology, the world consists of heaven, earth and man, and man controls heaven and earth as the embodiment of both elements, that is, the heavenly mind and earthly body. [99] Because heaven is higher than the earth, this order should be reflected in the mind-body relationship: its disorder causes evil, while the orderly state is regarded as good. [100] Therefore, the ideal state of man is the perfect realization of the heavenly mind by nurturing this a priori human nature [101] through the hard but steady life-long self-discipline [102] of learning, reflection and practice. [103] It is to develop virtues like benevolence, justice, courtesy, wisdom and trust, [104] though the comprehensive and prime virtue called benevolence [jen, in] [105] represents authentic humanity as the reflection of Heaven, Tao, One, Origin or Centre in the ancient Chinese philosophy. [106] Such an ideal man of virtue is called a noble man, benevolent man, great man, wise man, or holy man. [107] Because the ideal humanity of Confucianism is moral as well as socio-political, man has a moral duty to rule his community according to the virtue which he has realized, as it reflects the will of Heaven. [108] Thus two human imperatives are self-discipline and ruling people, and these two are complementary. [109] So the Great Learning describes eight logical steps to self-fulfilment: study, knowledge, sincere will, right mind, self-discipline, command of family, rule of country, and finally control of the world. A man fulfils his great ego of heavenly humanity [jen, in] by ceaselessly overcoming his earthly small ego and following the way of courtesy in every act. [110] Courtesy [li, yeh] is the way to apply the absolute order of heaven-earth to all human relationships, [111] though filial piety toward parents and ancestors is the foundation of all virtues, and loyalty to the ruler as the fixed centre of mind is the proof of self-discovery. [112] Because he was born in an age of such political and moral disorder, Confucius attempted to restore social order by the establishment of an unified value system that he found in the belief in the Will of Heaven, which had been introduced to the political realm by the Duke of Chou five centuries ago. [113] For the restoration of political order, politicians as well as the king, who was called “son of Heaven,” should first know the Will of Heaven. [114] Those who are educated and disciplined in such a way should be honoured and become politicians. [115] So Confucius tried to educate royal princes as well as young people in order to equip them properly as good rulers, [116] because he believed that he was the bearer of the Heaven's Will. [117] He listed three kinds of learning: learning by birth, study and life experience, [118] and advised his disciples not to be bored in learning throughout their whole lives. [119] Practically, it was taught that the only way to achieve the ideal state of man was to study the canon and literature of Confucianism. [120] So, education has been greatly emphasized as the way to fulfil oneself in the society. [121] A good scholar will be a good ruler as well as a good man. [122] We can find here the ideas of scholastic, canonic, and political sanctification.

However, this philosophical Confucianism was replaced by religious Neo-Confucianism in the late 13th century, and the latter is the dominant form of Confucianism in Korea. [123] Neo-Confucianism is a religious form of Confucianism that was syncretized especially with Taoism. [124] Because Confucianism had been significantly altered to anti-emotionalism under the influence of Buddhism, [125] Jung Tsu and Chu Hsi attempted a new system in order to overcome the religious threat of Buddhism, teaching that human emotion [chi] is essential to express human nature [li, ih]. [126] As the Taoistic idea of spirit [chi] was introduced, Confucianism was mystified and believed that the life and death of man is caused by the assembling and scattering of chi. [127] It also held that it takes several generations for the deceased spirit to be totally scattered into the Nature, [128] and it thus became the continued duty of filial piety to serve and take care of the spirits of close ancestors until they were totally scattered back to the Nature. [129] Confucius himself favoured rituals and ceremonies, [130] but his practice was simply the symbolic recognition of traditional rituals out of courtesy, [131] for it seems that he did not really believe in any deity or spirit. [132] Now, however, ancestor worship became practically the most imperative duty of man, [133] and the School of Rites attained prominence with Chu Hsi's Family Rites as well as genealogy of ancestral connections. [134] Moreover, Korean Confucianism modified the feudalistic system of five classes in the Chinese Confucianism, in which emperor, king, high officials, nobility and ordinary people were assigned to worship different classes and generations of object, so that in Korea even ordinary people was required to worship up to four generations. [135] Furthermore, when one's parent, especially the father, dies, three years are to be devoted to repent of any wrongdoing to him and to care for his tomb, sometimes even living beside the tomb. [136] In this social context, forms and rituals have dominated and a legalistic moralism of hypocrisy and pretence has prevailed in Korean Confucianism. Here we see the Shamanistic shadow of ceremonial sanctification, because the rituals of ancestor worship are believed to be decisive for one's happiness and humanity.

Also, its fundamentalistic mentality has subsequently developed sectarianism, provincialism, and endless political conflicts among competing parties. [137] Certainly, such a sectarian conflict was a fundamental departure from the moral virtues which Confucius taught. [138] But it has been thought necessary to keep the purity and orthodoxy of Confucianism, [139] and it has made Korean people confuse the concept of sanctification with that of doctrinal purity or orthodoxy. The Confucian emphasis on scholastic intellectualism with a strong idea of orthodoxy/heresy [140] caused them to be fond of theoretical disputes. And it had a significant effect on the Christian understanding of sanctification in Korea, because it was in the era of Confucianism that Christianity was introduced to Korea and many early Christians were formerly Confucians. [141]

4.3 Three Types of the Doctrine of Sanctification in the Korean Church

Against this background survey of the pre-understandings of the traditional religions, we will now attempt to analyze critically the Korean Church's understanding of sanctification. Three types of the doctrine of sanctification have been taught in the Korean Church: disciplinary, fatalistic, and mystical sanctification.

4.3.1 Disciplinary Sanctification

Disciplinary sanctification was taught emphatically by the Wesleyan Methodist Church. Though it is far smaller than the Presbyterian Church in Korea, the Calvinistic Presbyterian Church too followed the Wesleyan idea in the doctrine of sanctification with the exception of perfectionism. But this is not at all strange when we reflect on the historical background that the first Presbyterian missionaries from America came to Korea under the influence of the Second Great Awakening which had arisen under the leadership of British Wesleyan pietism. [142] So, they were even described as “missionaries of Methodist mentality.” [143] Moreover, they were typically preachers of Puritanical legalism. [144] Further, in the first Christian encounter with the oriental religious culture in the 16th century China, Jesuit missionaries set a standard missionary strategy of “respecting Confucianism and rejecting Buddhism” and made every effort to find out and emphasize the similarities between Confucian and Christian teachings. [145] As a result, natural theology has prevailed, while the unique teachings of Christianity like the doctrine of grace, revelation, faith or Christology have been naturally de-emphasized. [146] So the idea of disciplinary sanctification, which is commonly found in Confucianism (as well as Taoism and Buddhism) and Catholicism, became a standard understanding of Christian sanctification with the result that the element of grace was significantly weakened. Byung-Hun Choi (1858-1927), the first Methodist minister and theologian, who had been “accustomed to the life style of self-discipline as a Confucian and therefore found it easy to accept Christianity through the Wesleyan teaching of gradual sanctification toward the perfect holiness,” [147] delineated the seven stages of sanctification and they were made up from two religious teachings. [148] Also, the first baptised Presbyterian was formerly called “Tao master No” and Sun-Joo Gil, who was one of the first Presbyterian ministers as well as the great leader of the early Presbyterian Church, was formerly known as “Tao master Gil,” because both of them had been engaged in Taoist discipline and had made significant progress in the discipline before they became Christian. [149]